Find this notebook at https://github.com/jakobnissen/hardware_introduction

Programming is used in many fields of science today, where individual scientists often have to write custom code for their own projects. For most scientists, however, computer science is not their field of expertise; They have learned programming by necessity. I count myself as one of them. While we may be reasonably familiar with the software side of programming, we rarely have even a basic understanding of how computer hardware impacts code performance.

The aim of this tutorial is to give non-professional programmers a brief overview of the features of modern hardware that you must understand in order to write fast code. It will be a distillation of what have learned the last few years. This tutorial will use Julia because it allows these relatively low-level considerations to be demonstrated easily in a high-level, interactive language.

This is not a guide to the Julia programming language

To write fast code, you must first understand your programming language and its idiosyncrasies. But this is not a guide to the Julia programming language. I recommend reading the performance tips section of the Julia documentation.

This is not an explanation of specific datastructures or algorithms

Besides knowing your language, you must also know your own code to make it fast. You must understand the idea behind big-O notation, why some algorithms are faster than others, and how different data structures work internally. Without knowing what an Array is, how could you possibly optimize code making use of arrays?

This too, is outside the scope of this paper. However, I would say that as a minimum, a programmer should have an understanding of:

• How a binary integer is represented in memory
• How a floating point number is represented in memory (learning this is also necessary to understand computational inacurracies from floating point operations, which is a must when doing scientific programming)
• The memory layout of a String including ASCII and UTF-8 encoding
• The basics of how an Array is structured, and what the difference between a dense array of e.g. integers and an array of references to objects are
• The principles behind how a Dict (i.e. hash table) and a Set works

Furthermore, I would also recommend familiarizing yourself with:

• Heaps
• Deques
• Tuples

This is not a tutorial on benchmarking your code

To write fast code in practice, it is necessary to profile your code to find bottlenecks where your machine spends the majority of the time. One must benchmark different functions and approaches to find the fastest in practice. Julia (and other languages) have tools for exactly this purpose, but I will not cover them here.

Content

Before you begin: Install packages

# If you don't already have these packages installed, outcomment these lines and run it:
# using Pkg
# Pkg.add("BenchmarkTools")
# Pkg.add("StaticArrays")

using StaticArrays
using BenchmarkTools

"Print median elapsed time of benchmark"
function print_median(trial)
    println("Median time: ", BenchmarkTools.prettytime(median(trial).time))
end;

The basic structure of computer hardware

For now, we will work with a simplified mental model of a computer. Through this document, I will add more details to our model as they become relevant.

[CPU] ↔ [RAM] ↔ [DISK]

In this simple diagram, the arrows represent data flow in either direction. The diagram shows three important parts of a computer:

• The central processing unit (CPU) is a chip the size of a stamp. This is where all the computation actually occurs, the brain of the computer.
• Random access memory (RAM, or just “memory”) is the short-term memory of the computer. This memory requires electrical power to maintain, and is lost when the computer is shut down. RAM serves as a temporary storage of data between the disk and the CPU. Much of time spent “loading” various applications and operating systems is actually spent moving data from disk to RAM and unpacking it there. A typical consumer laptop has around 10^11 bits of RAM memory.
• The disk is a mass storage unit. This data on disk persists after power is shut down, so the disk contains the long-term memory of the computer. It is also much cheaper per gigabyte than RAM, with consumer PCs having around 10^13 bits of disk space.

Avoid write to disk where possible

Even with a fast mass storage unit such as a solid state drive (SSD) or even the newer Optane technology, disks are many times, usually thousands of times, slower than RAM. In particular, seeks, i.e. switching to a new point of the disk to read from or write to, is slow. As a consequence, writing a large chunk of data to disk is much faster than writing many small chunks.

To write fast code, you must therefore make sure to have your working data in RAM, and limit disk writes as much as possible.

The following example serves to illustrate the difference in speed: The first function opens a file, accesses one byte from the file, and closes it again. The second function randomly accesses 1,000,000 integers from RAM.

# Open a file
function test_file(path)
    open(path) do file
        # Go to 1000'th byte of file and read it
        seek(file, 1000)
        read(file, UInt8)
    end
end
@time test_file("test_file")

# Randomly access data N times
function random_access(data::Vector{UInt}, N::Integer)
    n = rand(UInt)
    mask = length(data) - 1
    @inbounds for i in 1:N
        n = (n >>> 7) ⊻ data[n & mask + 1]
    end
    return n
end

data = rand(UInt, 2^24)
@time random_access(data, 1000000);

  0.001321 seconds (15 allocations: 976 bytes)
  0.130833 seconds

Benchmarking this is a little tricky, because the first invokation will include the compilation times of both functions. And in the second invokation, your operating system will have stored a copy of the file (or cached the file) in RAM, making the file seek almost instant. To time it properly, run it once, then change the file, and run it again. So in fact, we should update our computer diagram:

[CPU] ↔ [RAM] ↔ [DISK CACHE] ↔ [DISK]

On my computer, finding a single byte in a file (including opening and closing the file) takes about 13 miliseconds, and accessing 1,000,000 integers from memory takes 131 miliseconds. So RAM is on the order of 10,000 times faster than disk.

When working with data too large to fit into RAM, load in the data chunk by chunk, e.g. one line at a time, and operate on that. That way, you don't need random access to your file and thus need to waste time on extra seeks, but only sequential access. And you must strive to write your program such that any input files are only read through once, not multiple times.

If you need to read a file byte by byte, for example when parsing a file, great speed improvements can be found by buffering the file. When buffering, you read in larger chunks, the buffer, to memory, and when you want to read from the file, you check if it's in the buffer. If not, read another large chunk into your buffer from the file. This approach minimizes disk reads. Both your operating system and your programming language will make use of caches, however, sometimes it is necessary to manually buffer your files.

CPU cache

The RAM is faster than the disk, and the CPU in turn is faster than RAM. A CPU ticks like a clock, with a speed of about 3 GHz, i.e. 3 billion ticks per second. One “tick” of this clock is called a clock cycle. While this is not really true, you may imagine that every cycle, the CPU executes a single, simple command called a CPU instruction which does one operation on a small piece of data. The clock speed then can serve as a reference for other timings in a computer. It is worth realizing that in a single clock cycle, a photon will travel only around 10 cm, and this puts a barrier to how fast memory (which is placed some distance away from the CPU) can operate. In fact, modern computers are so fast that a significant bottleneck in their speed is the delay caused by the time needed for electricity to move through the wires inside the computer.

On this scale, reading from RAM takes around 100 clock cycles. Similarly to how the slowness of disks can be mitigated by copying data to the faster RAM, data from RAM is copied to a smaller memory chip physically on the CPU, called a cache. The cache is faster because it is physically on the CPU chip (reducing wire delays), and because it uses a faster type of RAM, static RAM, instead of the slower (but cheaper to manufacture) dynamic RAM. Because it must be placed on the CPU, limiting its size, and because it is more expensive to produce, a typical CPU cache only contains around 10^8 bits, around 1000 times less than RAM. There are actually multiple layers of CPU cache, but here we simplify it and just refer to “the cache” as one single thing:

[CPU] ↔ [CPU CACHE] ↔ [RAM] ↔ [DISK CACHE] ↔ [DISK]

When the CPU requests a piece of data from the RAM, say a single byte, it will first check if the memory is already in cache. If so, it will read from it from there. This is much faster, usually just a few clock cycles, than access to RAM. If not, we have a cache miss, and your program will stall for tens of nanoseconds while your computer copies data from RAM into the cache.

It is not possible, except in very low-level languages, to manually manage the CPU cache. Instead, you must make sure to use your cache effectively.

Effective use of the cache comes down to locality, temporal and spacial locality:

• By temporal locality, I mean that data you recently accessed likely resides in cache already. Therefore, if you must access a piece of memory multiple times, make sure you do it close together in time.
• By spacial locality, I mean that you should access data from memory addresses close to each other. Your CPU does not copy just the requested bytes to cache. Instead, your CPU will always copy larger chunk of data (usually 512 consecutive bits).

From this information, one can deduce a number of simple tricks to improve performance:

• Use as little memory as possible. When your data takes up less memory, it is more likely that your data will be in cache. Remember, a CPU can do approximately 100 small operations in the time wasted by a single cache miss.

• When reading data from RAM, read it sequentially, such that you mostly have the next data you will be using in cache, instead of in a random order. In fact, modern CPUs will detect if you are reading in data sequentially, and prefetch upcoming data, that is, fetching the next chunk while the current chunk is being processed, reducing delays caused by cache misses.

To illustrate this, let's compare the time spent on the random_access function above with a new function linear_access. This function performans the same computation as random_access, but uses i instead of n to access the array, so it access the data in a linear fashion. Hence, the only difference is the memory access pattern.

Notice the large discrepency in time spent.

function linear_access(data::Vector{UInt}, N::Integer)
    n = rand(UInt)
    mask = length(data) - 1
    for i in 1:N
        n = (n >>> 7) ⊻ data[i & mask + 1]
    end
    return n
end

print_median(@benchmark random_access(data, 4096))
print_median(@benchmark linear_access(data, 4096))

Median time: 1.997 μs
Median time: 435.631 μs

This also has implications for your data structures. Hash tables such as Dicts and Sets are inherently cache inefficient and almost always cause cache misses, whereas arrays don't.

Many of the optimizations in this document indirectly impact cache use, so this is important to have in mind.

Memory alignment

As just mentioned, your CPU will move 512 consecutive bits (64 bytes) to and from main RAM to cache at a time. These 64 bytes are called a cache line. Your entire main memory is segmented into cache lines. For example, memory addresses 0 to 63 is one cache line, addresses 64 to 127 is the next, 128 to 191 the next, et cetera. Your CPU may only request one of these cache lines from memory, and not e.g. the 64 bytes from address 30 to 93.

This means that some data structures can straddle the boundaries between cache lines. If I request a 64-bit (8 byte) integer at adress 60, the CPU must first generate two memory requests from the single requested memory address (namely to get cache lines 0-63 and 64-127), and then retrieve the integer from both cache lines, wasting time.

The time wasted can be significant. In a situation where in-cache memory access proves the bottleneck, the slowdown can approach 2x. In the following example, I use a pointer to repeatedly access an array at a given offset from a cache line boundary. If the offset is in the range 0:56, the integers all fit within one single cache line, and the function is fast. If the offset is in 57:63 all integers will straddle cache lines.

function alignment_test(data::Vector{UInt}, offset::Integer)
    # Jump randomly around the memory.
    n = rand(UInt)
    mask = (length(data) - 9) ⊻ 7
    GC.@preserve data begin # protect the array from moving in memory
        ptr = pointer(data)
        iszero(UInt(ptr) & 63) || error("Array not aligned")
        ptr += (offset & 63)
        for i in 1:4096
            n = (n >>> 7) ⊻ unsafe_load(ptr, (n & mask + 1) % Int)
        end
    end
    return n
end
data = rand(UInt, 256 + 8);

print_median(@benchmark alignment_test(data, 0))
print_median(@benchmark alignment_test(data, 60))

Median time: 6.561 μs
Median time: 12.978 μs

In the example above, the short vector easily fit into cache. If we increase the vector size, we will force cache misses. Note that the effect of misalignment is dwarfed by the time wasted on cache misses:

data = rand(UInt, 1 << 24 + 8)
print_median(@benchmark alignment_test(data, 10))
print_median(@benchmark alignment_test(data, 60))

Median time: 423.401 μs
Median time: 497.868 μs

Fortunately, the compiler does a few tricks to make it less likely that you will access misaligned data. First, Julia (and other compiled languages) always places new objects in memory at the boundaries of cache lines. When an object is placed right at the boundary, we say that it is aligned. Julia also aligns the beginning of larger arrays:

memory_address = reinterpret(UInt, pointer(data))
@assert iszero(memory_address % 64)

Note that if the beginning of an array is aligned, then it's not possible for 1-, 2-, 4-, or 8-byte objects to straddle cache line boundaries, and everything will be aligned.

It would still be possible for an e.g. 7-byte object to be misaligned in an array. In an array of 7-byte objects, the 10th object would be placed at byte offset 7 * (10-1) = 63, and the object would straddle the cache line. However, the compiler usually does not allow struct with a nonstandard size for this reason. If we define a 7-byte struct:

struct AlignmentTest
    a::UInt32 # 4 bytes +
    b::UInt16 # 2 bytes +
    c::UInt8  # 1 byte = 7 bytes?
end

Then we can use Julia's introspection to get the relative position of each of the three integers in an AlignmentTest object in memory:

function get_mem_layout(T)
    for fieldno in 1:fieldcount(T)
        println("Name: ", fieldname(T, fieldno), "\t",
                "Size: ", sizeof(fieldtype(T, fieldno)), " bytes\t",
                "Offset: ", fieldoffset(T, fieldno), " bytes.")
    end
end

println("Size of AlignmentTest: ", sizeof(AlignmentTest), " bytes.")
get_mem_layout(AlignmentTest)

Size of AlignmentTest: 8 bytes.
Name: a	Size: 4 bytes	Offset: 0 bytes.
Name: b	Size: 2 bytes	Offset: 4 bytes.
Name: c	Size: 1 bytes	Offset: 6 bytes.

We can see that, despite an AlignmentTest only having 4 + 2 + 1 = 7 bytes of actual data, it takes up 8 bytes of memory, and accessing an AlignmentTest object from an array will always be aligned.

As a coder, there are only a few situations where you can face alignment issues. I can come up with two:

1. If you manually create object with a strange size, e.g. by accessing a dense integer array with pointers. This can save memory, but will waste time. My implementation of a Cuckoo filter does this to save space.
2. During matrix operations. If you have a matrix the columns are sometimes unaligned because it is stored densely in memory. E.g. in a 15x15 matrix of Float32s, only the first column is aligned, all the others are not. This can have serious effects when doing matrix operations: I've seen benchmarks where an 80x80 matrix/vector multiplication is 2x faster than a 79x79 one due to alignment issues.

Assembly code

To run, any program must be translated, or compiled to CPU instructions. The CPU instructions are what is actually running on your computer, as opposed to the code written in your programming language, which is merely a description of the program. CPU instructions are usually presented to human beings in assembly. Assembly is a programming language which has a one-to-one correspondance with CPU instructions.

Viewing assembly code will be useful to understand some of the following sections which pertain to CPU instructions.

In Julia, we can easily inspect the compiled assembly code using the code_native function or the equivalent @code_native macro. We can do this for a simple function:

# View assembly code generated from this function call
function foo(x)
    s = zero(eltype(x))
    @inbounds for i in eachindex(x)
        s = x[i ⊻ s]
    end
    return s
end

# Actually running the function will immediately crash Julia, so don't.
@code_native foo(data)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
; ┌ @ In[43]:4 within `foo'
; │┌ @ abstractarray.jl:212 within `eachindex'
; ││┌ @ abstractarray.jl:95 within `axes1'
; │││┌ @ abstractarray.jl:75 within `axes'
; ││││┌ @ In[43]:3 within `size'
    movq	24(%rdi), %rax
; ││││└
; ││││┌ @ tuple.jl:157 within `map'
; │││││┌ @ range.jl:320 within `OneTo' @ range.jl:311
; ││││││┌ @ promotion.jl:409 within `max'
    testq	%rax, %rax
; │└└└└└└
    jle	L75
    movq	%rax, %rcx
    sarq	$63, %rcx
    andnq	%rax, %rcx, %rcx
    movq	(%rdi), %rdx
; │ @ In[43]:5 within `foo'
; │┌ @ int.jl:860 within `xor' @ int.jl:301
    negq	%rcx
    movl	$1, %esi
    xorl	%eax, %eax
    nopw	%cs:(%rax,%rax)
    nopl	(%rax)
L48:
    xorq	%rsi, %rax
; │└
; │┌ @ multidimensional.jl:543 within `getindex' @ array.jl:788
    movq	-8(%rdx,%rax,8), %rax
; │└
; │┌ @ range.jl:597 within `iterate'
; ││┌ @ promotion.jl:398 within `=='
    leaq	(%rcx,%rsi), %rdi
    addq	$1, %rdi
; ││└
    addq	$1, %rsi
; ││┌ @ promotion.jl:398 within `=='
    cmpq	$1, %rdi
; │└└
    jne	L48
; │ @ In[43]:7 within `foo'
    retq
L75:
    xorl	%eax, %eax
; │ @ In[43]:7 within `foo'
    retq
    nop
; └

Let's break it down:

The lines beginning with ; are comments, and explain which section of the code the following instructions come from. They show the nested series of function calls, and where in the source code they are. You can see that eachindex, calls axes1, which calls axes, which calls size. Under the comment line containing the size call, we see the first CPU instruction. The instruction name is on the far left, movq. The name is composed of two parts, mov, the kind of instruction (to move content to or from a register), and a suffix q, short for “quad”, which means 64-bit integer. There are the following suffixes: b (byte, 8 bit), w (word, 16 bit), l, (long, 32 bit) and q (quad, 64 bit).

The next two columns in the instruction, 24(%rdi) and %rax are the arguments to movq. These are the names of the registers (we will return to registers later) where the data to operate on are stored.

You can also see (in the larger display of assembly code) that the code is segmented into sections beginning with a name starting with “L”, for example there's a section L48. These sections are jumped between using if-statements, or branches. Here, section L48 marks the actual loop. You can see the following two instructions in the L48 section:

; ││┌ @ promotion.jl:401 within `=='
     cmpq    $1, %rdi
; │└└
     jne     L48

The first instruction cmpq (compare quad) compares the data in registry rdi, which hold the data for the number of iterations left (plus one), with the number 1, and sets certain flags (wires) in the CPU based on the result. The next instruction jne (jump if not equal) makes a jump if the “equal” flag is not set in the CPU, which happens if there is one or more iterations left. You can see it jumps to L48, meaning this section repeat.

Fast instruction, slow instruction

Not all CPU instructions are equally fast. Below is a table of selected CPU instructions with very rough estimates of how many clock cycles they take to execute. You can find much more detailed tables in this document. Here, I'll summarize the speed of instructions on modern Intel CPUs. It's very similar for all modern CPUs.

CPUs instructions typically take multiple CPU cycles to complete. However, if an instruction uses different part of the CPU during its execution, the CPU can usually start a new instruction before the old one is finished: If some operation X takes, say 4 clock cycles, they may queue one or even two operations per clock cycle using a feature called instruction pipelining. Hence, instruction X has a latency of 4 cycles, meaning it takes 4 cycles for the instruction to complete. But if the CPU can queue a new instruction every single cycle, it can have a reciprocal throughput of 1 clock cycle, meaning on average, it only takes 1 cycle per operation.

The following table measures time in clock cycles:

Instruction Latency Rec. throughp.

move data 1 0.25

and/or/xor 1 0.25

test/compare 1 0.25

do nothing 1 0.25

int add/subtract 1 0.25

bitshift 1 0.5

float multiplication 5 0.5

vector int and/or/xor 1 0.5

vector int add/sub 1 0.5

vector float add/sub 4 0.5

vector float multiplic. 5 0.5

lea 3 1

int multiplic 3 1

float add/sub 3 1

float multiplic. 5 1

float division 15 5

vector float division 13 8

integer division 50 40

The lea instruction takes three inputs, A, B and C, where A must be 2, 4, or 8, and calculates AB + C. We'll come back to what the “vector” instructions do later.

For comparison, we may also add some very rough estimates of other sources of delays:

Delay Cycles

move memory from cache 1

misaligned memory read 10

cache miss 500

read from disk 5000000

If you have an inner loop executing millions of times, it may pay off to inspect the generated assembly code for the loop and check if you can express the computation in terms of fast CPU instructions. For example, if you have an integer you know to be 0 or above, and you want to divide it by 8 (discarding any remainder), you can instead do a bitshift, since bitshifts are way faster than integer division:

divide_slow(x) = div(x, 8)
divide_fast(x) = x >>> 3;

However, modern compilers are pretty clever, and will often figure out the optimal instructions to use in your functions to obtain the same result, by for example replacing an integer divide idivq instruction with a bitshift right (shrq) where applicable to be faster. You need to check the assembly code yourself to see:

# Calling it with debuginfo=:none removes the comments in the assembly code
code_native(divide_slow, (UInt,), debuginfo=:none)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
    movq	%rdi, %rax
    shrq	$3, %rax
    retq
    nopl	(%rax,%rax)

Allocations and immutability

As already mentioned, main RAM is much slower than the CPU cache. However, working in main RAM comes with an additional disadvantage: Your operating system (OS) keeps track of which process have access to which memory. If every process had access to all memory, then it would be trivially easy to make a program that scans your RAM for secret data such as bank passwords - or for one program to accidentally overwrite the memory of another program. Instead, every process is allocated a bunch of memory by the OS, and is only allowed to read or write to the allocated data.

The creation of new objects in RAM is termed allocation, and the destruction is called deallocation. Really, the (de)allocation is not really creation or destruction per se, but rather the act of starting and stopping keeping track of the memory. Memory that is not kept track of will eventually be overwritten by other data. Allocation and deallocation take a significant amount of time depending on the size of objects, from a few tens to hundreds of nanoseconds per allocation.

In programming languages such as Julia, Python, R and Java, deallocation is automatically done using a program called the garbage collector (GC). This program keeps track of which objects are rendered unreachable by the programmer, and deallocates them. For example, if you do:

thing = [1,2,3]
thing = nothing

Then there is no way to get the original array [1,2,3] back, it is unreachable. Hence it is simply wasting RAM, and doing nothing. It is garbage. Allocating and deallocating objects sometimes cause the GC to start its scan of all objects in memory and deallocate the unreachable ones, which causes significant lag. You can also start the garbage collector manually:

GC.gc()

The following example illustrates the difference in time spent in a function that allocates a vector with the new result relative to one which simply modifies the vector, allocating nothing:

function increment(x::Vector{<:Integer})
    y = similar(x)
    @inbounds for i in eachindex(x)
        y[i] = x[i] + 1
    end
    return y
end

function increment!(x::Vector{<:Integer})
    @inbounds for i in eachindex(x)
        x[i] = x[i] + 1
    end
    return x
end

data = rand(UInt, 2^10);

@btime increment(data);
@btime increment!(data);

  419.655 ns (1 allocation: 8.13 KiB)
  70.350 ns (0 allocations: 0 bytes)

On my computer, the allocating function is about 5x slower. This is due to a few properties of the code:

• First, the allocation itself takes time
• Second, the allocated objects eventually have to be deallocated, also taking time
• Third, repeated allocations triggers the GC to run, causing overhead
• Fourth, more allocations sometimes means less efficient cache use because you are using more memory

For these reasons, performant code should keep allocations to a minimum. Note that the @btime macro prints the number and size of the allocations. This information is given because it is assumed that any programmer who cares to benchmark their code will be interested in reducing allocations.

Not all objects need to be allocated

Inside RAM, data is kept on either the stack or the heap. The stack is a simple data structure with a beginning and end, similar to a Vector in Julia. The stack can only be modified by adding or subtracting elements from the end, analogous to a Vector with only the two mutating operations push! and pop!. These operations on the stack are very fast. When we talk about “allocations”, however, we talk about data on the heap. Unlike the stack, the heap has an unlimited size (well, it has the size of your computer's RAM), and can be modified arbitrarily, deleting any objects.

Intuitively, it may seem obvious that all objects need to be placed in RAM, must be able to be retrieved and deleted at any time by the program, and therefore need to be allocated on the heap. And for some languages, like Python, this is true. However, this is not true in Julia and other efficient, compiled languages. Integers, for example, can often be placed on the stack.

Why do some objects need to be heap allocated, while others can be stack allocated? To be stack-allocated, the compiler needs to know for certain that:

• The object is a reasonably small size, so it fits on the stack. This is needed for technical reasons for the stack to operate.
• The compiler can predict exactly when it needs to add and destroy the object so it can destroy it by simply popping the stack (similar to calling pop! on a Vector). This is usually the case for local variables in compiled languages.

Julia has even more constrains on stack-allocated objects.

• The object should have a fixed size known at compile time.
• The compiler must know that object never changes. The CPU is free to copy stack-allocated objects, and for immutable objects, there is no way to distinguish a copy from the original. This bears repeating: With immutable objects, there is no way to distinguish a copy from the original. This gives the compiler and the CPU certain freedoms when operating on it.

In Julia, we have a concept of a bitstype, which is an object that recursively contain no heap-allocated objects. Heap allocated objects are objects of types String, Array, Ref and Symbol, mutable objects, or objects containing any of the previous. Bitstypes are more performant exactly because they are immutable, fixed in size and can be stack allocated. The latter point is also why objects are immutable by default in Julia, and leads to one other performance tip: Use immutable objects whereever possible.

What does this mean in practise? In Julia, it means if you want fast stack-allocated objects:

• You object must be created, used and destroyed in a fully compiled function so the compiler knows for certain when it needs to create, use and destroy the object. If the object is returned for later use (and not immediately returned to another, fully compiled function), we say that the object escapes, and must be allocated.
• Your object's type must be a bitstype.
• Your type must be limited in size. I don't know exactly how large it has to be, but 100 bytes is fine.
• The exact memory layout of your type must be known by the compiler.

abstract type AllocatedInteger end

struct StackAllocated <: AllocatedInteger
    x::Int
end

mutable struct HeapAllocated <: AllocatedInteger
    x::Int
end

We can inspect the code needed to instantiate a HeapAllocated object with the code needed to instantiate a StackAllocated one:

@code_native HeapAllocated(1)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
; ┌ @ In[18]:8 within `HeapAllocated'
    pushq	%rbx
    movq	%rsi, %rbx
    movabsq	$jl_get_ptls_states_fast, %rax
    callq	*%rax
    movabsq	$jl_gc_pool_alloc, %rcx
    movl	$1400, %esi             ## imm = 0x578
    movl	$16, %edx
    movq	%rax, %rdi
    callq	*%rcx
    movabsq	$4609615504, %rcx       ## imm = 0x112C12690
    movq	%rcx, -8(%rax)
    movq	%rbx, (%rax)
    popq	%rbx
    retq
    nopl	(%rax)
; └

Notice the callq instructions in the HeapAllocated one. This instruction calls out to other functions, meaning that in fact, much more code is really needed to create a HeapAllocated object that what is displayed. In constrast, the StackAllocated really only needs a few instructions:

@code_native StackAllocated(1)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
; ┌ @ In[18]:4 within `StackAllocated'
    movq	%rsi, %rax
    retq
    nopw	%cs:(%rax,%rax)
; └

Because bitstypes dont need to be stored on the heap and can be copied freely, bitstypes are stored inline in arrays. This means that bitstype objects can be stored directly inside the array's memory. Non-bitstypes have a unique identity and location on the heap. They are distinguishable from copies, so cannot be freely copied, and so arrays contain reference to the memory location on the heap where they are stored. Accessing such an object from an array then means first accessing the array to get the memory location, and then accessing the object itself using that memory location. Beside the double memory access, objects are stored less efficiently on the heap, meaning that more memory needs to be copied to CPU caches, meaning more cache misses. Hence, even when stored on the heap in an array, bitstypes can be stored more effectively.

Base.:+(x::Int, y::AllocatedInteger) = x + y.x
Base.:+(x::AllocatedInteger, y::AllocatedInteger) = x.x + y.x

data_stack = [StackAllocated(i) for i in rand(UInt16, 1000000)]
data_heap = [HeapAllocated(i.x) for i in data_stack]

@btime sum(data_stack)
@btime sum(data_heap);

  281.676 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  1.015 ms (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

We can verify that, indeed, the array in the data_stack stores the actual data of a StackAllocated object, whereas the data_heap contains pointers (i.e. memory addresses):

println("First object of data_stack: ", data_stack[1])
println("First data in data_stack array: ", unsafe_load(pointer(data_stack)), '\n')

println("First object of data_heap: ", data_heap[1])
first_data = unsafe_load(Ptr{UInt}(pointer(data_heap)))
println("First data in data_heap array: ", repr(first_data))
println("Data at address ", repr(first_data), ": ",
        unsafe_load(Ptr{HeapAllocated}(first_data)))

First object of data_stack: StackAllocated(3693)
First data in data_stack array: StackAllocated(3693)

First object of data_heap: HeapAllocated(3693)
First data in data_heap array: 0x0000000110cb16a0
Data at address 0x0000000110cb16a0: HeapAllocated(3693)

Registers and SIMD

It is time yet again to update our simplified computer schematic. A CPU operates only on data present in registers. These are small, fixed size slots (e.g. 8 bytes in size) inside the CPU itself. A register is meant to hold one single piece of data, like an integer or a floating point number. As hinted in the section on assembly code, each instruction usually refers to one or two registers which contain the data the operation works on:

[CPU] ↔ [REGISTERS] ↔ [CPU CACHE] ↔ [RAM] ↔ [DISK CACHE] ↔ [DISK]

To operate on data structures larger than one register, the data must be broken up into smaller pieces that fits inside the register. For example, when adding two 128-bit integers on my computer:

@code_native UInt128(5) + UInt128(11)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
; ┌ @ int.jl:53 within `+'
    addq	%rcx, %rsi
    adcxq	%rdx, %r8
    movq	%rsi, (%rdi)
    movq	%r8, 8(%rdi)
    movq	%rdi, %rax
    retq
    nopw	%cs:(%rax,%rax)
; └

There is no register that can do 128-bit additions. First the lower 64 bits must be added using a addq instruction, fitting in a register. Then the upper bits are added with a adcxq instruction, which adds the digits, but also uses the carry bit from the previous instruction. Finally, the results are moved 64 bits at a time using movq instructions.

The small size of the registers serves as a bottleneck for CPU throughput: It can only operate on one integer/float at a time. In order to sidestep this, modern CPUs contain specialized 256-bit registers (or 128-bit in older CPUs, or 512-bit in the brand new ones) than can hold 4 64-bit integers/floats at once, or 8 32-bit integers, etc. Confusingly, the data in such wide registers are termed “vectors”. The CPU have access to instructions that can perform various CPU operations on vectors, operating on 4 64-bit integers in one instruction. This is called “single instruction, multiple data”, SIMD, or vectorization. Notably, a 4x64 bit operation is not the same as a 256-bit operation, e.g. there is no carry-over with between the 4 64-bit integers when you add two vectors. Instead, a 256-bit vector operation is equivalent to 4 individual 64-bit operations.

We can illustrate this with the following example:

# Create a single statically-sized vector of 8 32-bit integers
# I could also have created 4 64-bit ones, etc.
a = @SVector Int32[1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]

# Don't add comments to output
code_native(+, (typeof(a), typeof(a)), debuginfo=:none)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
    movq	%rdi, %rax
    vmovdqu	(%rdx), %ymm0
    vpaddd	(%rsi), %ymm0, %ymm0
    vmovdqu	%ymm0, (%rdi)
    vzeroupper
    retq
    nopw	%cs:(%rax,%rax)
    nopl	(%rax)

Here, two 8*32 bit vectors are added together in one single instruction. You can see the CPU makes use of a single vpaddd (vector packed add double) instruction to add 8 32-bit integers, as well as the corresponding move instruction vmovdqu. Note that vector CPU instructions begin with v.

It's worth mentioning the interaction between SIMD and alignment: If a series of 256-bit (32-byte) SIMD loads are misaligned, then up to half the loads could cross cache line boundaries, as opposed to just 1/8th of 8-byte loads. Thus, alignment is a much more serious issue when using SIMD. Since array beginnings are always aligned, this is usually not an issue, but in cases where you are not guaranteed to start from an aligned starting point, such as with matrix operations, this may make a significant difference. In brand new CPUs with 512-bit registers, the issues is even worse as the SIMD size is the same as the cache line size, so all loads would be misaligned if the initial load is.

SIMD vectorization of e.g. 64-bit integers may increase throughput by almost 4x, so it is of huge importance in high-performance programming. Compilers will automatically vectorize operations if they can. What can prevent this automatic vectorization?

SIMD needs uninterrupted iteration of fixed length

Because vectorized operations operates on multiple data at once, it is not possible to interrupt the loop at an arbitrary point. For example, if 4 64-bit integers are processed in one clock cycle, it is not possible to stop a SIMD loop after 3 integers have been processed. Suppose you had a loop like this:

for i in 1:8
    if foo()
        break
    end
    # do stuff with my_vector[i]
end

Here, the loop could end on any iteration due to the break statement. Therefore, any SIMD instruction which loaded in multiple integers could operate on data after the loop is supposed to break, i.e. data which is never supposed to be read. This would be wrong behaviour, and so, the compiler cannot use SIMD instructions.

A good rule of thumb is that simd needs:

• A loop with a predetermined length, so it knows when to stop, and
• A loop with no branches (i.e. if-statements) in the loop

In fact, even boundschecking, i.e. checking that you are not indexing outside the bounds of a vector, causes a branch. After all, if the code is supposed to raise a bounds error after 3 iterations, even a single SIMD operation would be wrong! To achieve SIMD vectorization then, all boundschecks must be disabled. We can use this do demonstrate the impact of SIMD:

function sum_nosimd(x::Vector)
    n = zero(eltype(x))
    for i in eachindex(x)
        n += x[i]
    end
    return n
end

function sum_simd(x::Vector)
    n = zero(eltype(x))
    # By removing the boundscheck, we allow automatic SIMD
    @inbounds for i in eachindex(x)
        n += x[i]
    end
    return n
end

# Make sure the vector is small enough to fit in cache so we don't time cache misses
data = rand(UInt64, 4096);

@btime sum_nosimd(data)
@btime sum_simd(data);

  2.198 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  200.598 ns (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

On my computer, the SIMD code is 10x faster than the non-SIMD code. SIMD alone accounts for only about 4x improvements (since we moved from 64-bits per iteration to 256 bits per iteration). The rest of the gain comes from not spending time checking the bounds and from automatic loop unrolling (explained later), which is also made possible by the @inbounds annotation.

SIMD needs a loop where loop order doesn't matter

SIMD can change the order in which elements in an array is processed. If the result of any iteration depends on any previous iteration such that the elements can't be re-ordered, the compiler will usually not SIMD-vectorize. Often when a loop won't auto-vectorize, it's due to subtleties in which data moves around in registers means that there will be some hidden memory dependency between elements in an array.

Imagine we want to sum some 64-bit integers in an array using SIMD. For simplicity, let's say the array has 8 elements, A, B, C … H. In an ordinary non-SIMD loop, the additions would be done like so:

(((((((A + B) + C) + D) + E) + F) + G) + H)

Whereas when loading the integers using SIMD, four 64-bit integers would be loaded into one vector <A, B, C, D>, and the other four into another <E, F, G, H>. The two vectors would be added: <A+E, B+F, C+G, D+H>. After the loop, the four integers in the resulting vector would be added. So other overall order would be:

((((A + E) + (B + F)) + (C + G)) + (D + H))

Perhaps surprisingly, addition of floating point numbers can give different results depending on the order (i.e. float addition is not associative):

x = eps(1.0) * 0.4
1.0 + (x + x) == (1.0 + x) + x

false

for this reason, float addition will not auto-vectorize:

data = rand(Float64, 4096)
@btime sum_nosimd(data)
@btime sum_simd(data);

  4.339 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  4.339 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

However, high-performance programming languages usually provide a command to tell the compiler it's alright to re-order the loop, even for non-associative loops. In Julia, this command is the @simd macro:

function sum_simd(x::Vector)
    n = zero(eltype(x))
    # Here we add the `@simd` macro to allow SIMD of floats
    @inbounds @simd for i in eachindex(x)
        n += x[i]
    end
    return n
end

data = rand(Float64, 4096)
@btime sum_nosimd(data)
@btime sum_simd(data);

  4.342 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  297.430 ns (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

Julia also provides the macro @simd ivdep which further tells the compiler that there are no memory-dependencies in the loop order. However, I strongly discourage the use of this macro, unless you really know what you're doing. In general, the compiler knows best when a loop has memory dependencies, and misuse of @simd ivdep can very easily lead to bugs that are hard to detect.

Struct of arrays

If we create an array containing four AlignmentTest objects A, B, C and D, the objects will lie end to end in the array, like this:

Objects: |      A        |       B       |       C       |        D      |
Fields:  |   a   | b |c| |   a   | b |c| |   a   | b |c| |   a   | b |c| |
Byte:     1               9              17              25              33

Note again that byte no. 8, 16, 24 and 32 are empty to preserve alignment, wasting memory. Now suppose you want to do an operation on all the .a fields of the structs. Because the .a fields are scattered 8 bytes apart, SIMD operations are much less efficient (loading up to 4 fields at a time) than if all the .a fields were stored together (where 8 fields could fit in a 256-bit register). When working with the .a fields only, the entire 64-byte cache lines would be read in, of which only half, or 32 bytes would be useful. Not only does this cause more cache misses, we also need instructions to pick out the half of the data from the SIMD registers we need.

The memory structure we have above is termed an “array of structs”, because, well, it is an array filled with structs. Instead we can strucure our 4 objects A to D as a “struct of arrays”. Conceptually, it could look like:

struct AlignmentTestVector
    a::Vector{UInt32}
    b::Vector{UInt16}
    c::Vector{UInt8}
end

With the following memory layout for each field:

Object: AlignmentTestVector
.a |   A   |   B   |   C   |   D   |
.b | A | B | C | D |
.c |A|B|C|D|

Alignment is no longer a problem, no space is wasted on padding. When running through all the a fields, all cache lines contain full 64 bytes of relevant data, so SIMD operations do not need extra operations to pick out the relevant data:

Base.rand(::Type{AlignmentTest}) = AlignmentTest(rand(UInt32), rand(UInt16), rand(UInt8))

N  = 1_000_000
array_of_structs = [rand(AlignmentTest) for i in 1:N]
struct_of_arrays = AlignmentTestVector(rand(UInt32, N), rand(UInt16, N), rand(UInt8, N));

@btime sum(x -> x.a, array_of_structs)
@btime sum(struct_of_arrays.a);

  444.546 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  113.006 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

Specialized CPU instructions

Most code makes use of only a score of CPU instructions like move, add, multiply, bitshift, and, or, xor, jumps, and so on. However, CPUs in the typical modern laptop support a lot of CPU instructions. Typically, if a certain operation is used heavily in consumer laptops, CPU manufacturers will add specialized instructions to speed up these operations. Depending on the hardware implementation of the instructions, the speed gain from using these instructions can be significant.

Julia only exposes a few specialized instructions, including:

• The number of set bits in an integer is effectively counted with the popcnt instruction, exposed via the count_ones function.
• The tzcnt instructions counts the number of trailing zeros in the bits an integer, exposed via the trailing_zeros function
• The order of individual bytes in a multi-byte integer can be reversed using the bswap instruction, exposed via the bswap function. This can be useful when having to deal with endianness.

The following example illustrates the performance difference between a manual implementation of the count_ones function, and the built-in version, which uses the popcnt instruction:

function manual_count_ones(x)
    n = 0
    while x != 0
        n += x & 1
        x >>>= 1
    end
    return n
end

data = rand(UInt, 10000)
@btime sum(manual_count_ones, data)
@btime sum(count_ones, data);

  217.605 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  2.059 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

The timings you observe here will depend on whether your compiler is clever enough to realize that the computation in the first function can be expressed as a popcnt instruction, and thus will be compiled to that. On my computer, the compiler is not able to make that inference, and the second function achieves the same result more than 100x faster.

Call any CPU instruction

Julia makes it possible to call CPU instructions direcly. This is not generally advised, since not all your users will have access to the same CPU with the same instructions.

The latest CPUs contain specialized instructions for AES encryption and SHA256 hashing. If you wish to call these instructions, you can call Julia's backend compiler, LLVM, directly. In the example below, I create a function which calls the vaesenc (one round of AES encryption) instruction directly:

# This is a 128-bit CPU "vector" in Julia
const __m128i = NTuple{2, VecElement{Int64}}

# Define the function in terms of LLVM instructions
aesenc(a, roundkey) = ccall("llvm.x86.aesni.aesenc", llvmcall, __m128i, (__m128i, __m128i), a, roundkey);

We can verify it works by checking the assembly of the function, which should contain only a single vaesenc instruction, as well as the retq (return) and the nopw (do nothing, used as a filler to align the CPU instructions in memory) instruction:

@code_native aesenc(__m128i((213132, 13131)), __m128i((31231, 43213)))

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
; ┌ @ In[33]:5 within `aesenc'
    vaesenc	%xmm1, %xmm0, %xmm0
    retq
    nopw	%cs:(%rax,%rax)
; └

Algorithms which makes use of specialized instructions can be extremely fast. In a blog post, the video game company Molly Rocket unveiled a new non-cryptographic hash function using AES instructions which reached unprecedented speeds.

Inlining

Consider the assembly of this function:

# Simply throw an error
f() = error()
@code_native f()

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
; ┌ @ In[35]:2 within `f'
    pushq	%rax
    movabsq	$error, %rax
    callq	*%rax
    nopl	(%rax)
; └

This code contains the callq instruction, which calls another function. A function call comes with some overhead depending on the arguments of the function and other things. While the time spent on a function call is measured in microseconds, it can add up if the function called is in a tight loop.

However, if we show the assembly of this function:

call_plus(x) = x + 1
code_native(call_plus, (Int,), debuginfo=:none)

    .section	__TEXT,__text,regular,pure_instructions
    leaq	1(%rdi), %rax
    retq
    nopw	%cs:(%rax,%rax)

The function call_plus calls +, and is compiled to a single leaq instruction (as well as some filler retq and nopw). But + is a normal Julia function, so call_plus is an example of one regular Julia function calling another. Why is there no callq instruction to call +?

The compiler has chosen to inline the function + into call_plus. That means that instead of calling +, it has copied the content of + directly into call_plus. The advantages of this is:

• There is no overhead from the function call
• There is no need to construct a Tuple to hold the arguments of the + function
• Whatever computations happens in + is compiled together with call_plus, allowing the compiler to use information from one in the other and possibly simplify some calculations.

So why aren't all functions inlined then? Inlining copies code, increases the size of it and consuming RAM. Furthermore, the CPU instructions themselves also needs to fit into the CPU cache (although CPU instructions have their own cache) in order to be efficiently retrieved. If everything was inlined, programs would be enormous and grind to a halt. Inlining is only an improvement if the inlined function is small.

Instead, the compiler uses heuristics (rules of thumb) to determine when a function is small enough for inlining to increase performance. These heuristics are not bulletproof, so Julia provides the macros @noinline, which prevents inlining of small functions (useful for e.g. functions that raises errors, which must be assumed to be called rarely), and @inline, which does not force the compiler to inline, but strongly suggests to the compiler that it ought to inline the function.

If code contains a time-sensitive section, for example an inner loop, it is important to look at the assembly code to verify that small functions in the loop is inlined. For example, in this line in my kmer hashing code, overall minhashing performance drops by a factor of two if this @inline annotation is removed.

An extreme difference between inlining and no inlining can be demonstrated thus:

@noinline noninline_poly(x) = x^3 - 4x^2 + 9x - 11
inline_poly(x) = x^3 - 4x^2 + 9x - 11

function time_function(F, x::AbstractVector)
    n = 0
    for i in x
        n += F(i)
    end
    return n
end;

@btime time_function(noninline_poly, data)
@btime time_function(inline_poly, data);

  13.380 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)
  7.207 μs (1 allocation: 16 bytes)

Unrolling

Consider a function that sums a vector of 64-bit integers. If the vector's data's memory offset is stored in register %r9, the length of the vector is stored in register %r8, the current index of the vector in %rcx and the running total in %rax, the assembly of the inner loop could look like this:

L1:
    ; add the integer at location %r9 + %rcx * 8 to %rax
    addq   (%r9,%rcx,8), %rax

    ; increment index by 1
    addq   $1, %rcx

    ; compare index to length of vector
    cmpq   %r8, %rcx

    ; repeat loop if index is smaller
    jb     L1

For a total of 4 instructions per element of the vector. The actual code generated by Julia will be similar to this, but also incluce extra instructions related to bounds checking that are not relevant here (and of course will include different comments).

However, if the function is written like this:

function sum_vector(v::Vector{Int})
    n = 0
    i = 1
    for chunk in 1:div(length(v), 4)
        n += v[i + 0]
        n += v[i + 1]
        n += v[i + 2]
        n += v[i + 3]
        i += 4
    end
    return n
end

The result is obviously the same if we assume the length of the vector is divisible by four. If the length is not divisible by four, we could simply use the function above to sum the first N - rem(N, 4) elements and add the last few elements in another loop. Despite the functionally identical result, the assembly of the loop is different and may look something like:

L1:
    addq   (%r9,%rcx,8), %rax
    addq   8(%r9,%rcx,8), %rax
    addq   16(%r9,%rcx,8), %rax
    addq   24(%r9,%rcx,8), %rax
    addq   $4, %rcx
    cmpq   %r8, %rcx
    jb     L1

For a total of 7 instructions per 4 additions, or 1.75 instructions per addition. This is less than half the number of instructions per integer! The speed gain comes from simply checking less often when we're at the end of the loop. We call this process unrolling the loop, here by a factor of four. Naturally, unrolling can only be done if we know the number of iterations beforehand, so we don't “overshoot” the number of iterations. Often, the compiler will unroll loops automatically for extra performance, but it can be worth looking at the assembly. For example, this is the assembly for the innermost loop generated on my computer for sum([1]):

L144:
    vpaddq  16(%rcx,%rax,8), %ymm0, %ymm0
    vpaddq  48(%rcx,%rax,8), %ymm1, %ymm1
    vpaddq  80(%rcx,%rax,8), %ymm2, %ymm2
    vpaddq  112(%rcx,%rax,8), %ymm3, %ymm3
    addq    $16, %rax
    cmpq    %rax, %rdi
    jne L144

Where you can see it is both unrolled by a factor of four, and uses 256-bit SIMD instructions, for a total of 128 bytes, 16 integers added per iteration, or 0.44 instructions per integer.

Notice also that the compiler chooses to use 4 different ymm SIMD registers, ymm0 to ymm3, whereas in my example assembly code, I just used one register rax. This is because, if you use 4 independent registers, then you don't need to wait for one vpaddq to complete (remember, it had a ~3 clock cycle latency) before the CPU can begin the next.

Branch prediction

As mentioned previously, CPU instructions take multiple cycles to complete, but may be queued into the CPU before the previous instruction has finished computing. So what happens when the CPU encounters a branch (i.e. a jump instruction)? It can't know which instruction to queue next, because that depends on the instruction that it just put into the queue and which has yet to be executed.

Modern CPUs make use of branch prediction. The CPU has a branch predictor circuit, which guesses the correct branch based on which branches were recently taken. In essense, the branch predictor attempts to learn simple patterns in which branches are taken in code, while the code is running. After queueing a branch, the CPU immediately queues instructions from whatever branch predicted by the branch predictor. The correctness of the guess is verified later, when the queued branch is being executed. If the guess was correct, great, the CPU saved time by guessing. If not, the CPU has to empty the pipeline and discard all computations since the initial guess, and then start over. This process causes a delay of a few nanoseconds.

For the programmer, this means that the speed of an if-statement depends on how easy it is to guess. If it is trivially easy to guess, the branch predictor will be correct almost all the time, and the if statement will take no longer than a simple instruction, typically 1 clock cycle. In a situation where the branching is random, it will be wrong about 50% of the time, and each misprediction may cost around 10 clock cycles.

Branches caused by loops are among the easiest to guess. If you have a loop with 1000 elements, the code will loop back 999 times and break out of the loop just once. Hence the branch predictor can simply always predict “loop back”, and get a 99.9% accuracy.

We can demonstrate the performance of branch misprediction with a simple function:

# Copy all odd numbers from src to dst.
function copy_odds!(dst::Vector{UInt}, src::Vector{UInt})
    write_index = 1
    @inbounds for i in eachindex(src) # <--- this branch is trivially easy to predict
        v = src[i]
        if isodd(v)  # <--- this is the branch we want to predict
            dst[write_index] = v
            write_index += 1
        end
    end
    return dst
end

dst = rand(UInt, 5000)
src_random = rand(UInt, 5000)
src_all_odd = [2i+1 for i in src_random];

@btime copy_odds!(dst, src_random)
@btime copy_odds!(dst, src_all_odd);

  11.586 μs (0 allocations: 0 bytes)
  1.702 μs (0 allocations: 0 bytes)

In the first case, the integers are random, and about half the branches will be mispredicted causing delays. In the second case, the branch is always taken, the branch predictor is quickly able to pick up the pattern and will reach near 100% correct prediction. As a result, on my computer, the latter is around 6x faster.

Note that if you use smaller vectors and repeat the computation many times, as the @btime macro does, the branch predictor is able to learn the pattern of the small random vectors by heart, and will reach much better than random prediction. This is especially pronounced in the most modern CPUs where the branch predictors have gotten much better. This “learning by heart” is an artifact of the loop in the benchmarking process. You would not expect to run the exact same computation repeatedly on real-life data:

src_random = rand(UInt, 100)
src_all_odd = [2i+1 for i in src_random];

@btime copy_odds!(dst, src_random)
@btime copy_odds!(dst, src_all_odd);

  62.548 ns (0 allocations: 0 bytes)
  42.602 ns (0 allocations: 0 bytes)

Because branches are very fast if they are predicted correctly, highly predictable branches caused by error checks are not of much performance concern, assuming that the code essensially never errors. Hence a branch like bounds checking is very fast. You should only remove bounds checks if absolutely maximal performance is critical, or if the bounds check happens in a loop which would otherwise SIMD-vectorize.

If branches cannot be easily predicted, it is often possible to re-phrase the function to avoid branches all together. For example, in the copy_odds! example above, we could instead write it like so:

function copy_odds!(dst::Vector{UInt}, src::Vector{UInt})
    write_index = 1
    @inbounds for i in eachindex(src)
        v = src[i]
        dst[write_index] = v
        write_index += isodd(v)
    end
    return dst
end

dst = rand(UInt, 5000)
src_random = rand(UInt, 5000)
src_all_odd = [2i+1 for i in src_random];

@btime copy_odds!(dst, src_random)
@btime copy_odds!(dst, src_all_odd);

  2.295 μs (0 allocations: 0 bytes)
  2.341 μs (0 allocations: 0 bytes)

Which contains no other branches than the one caused by the loop itself (which is easily predictable), and results in speeds somewhat worse than the perfectly predicted one, but much better for random data.

The compiler will often remove branches in your code when the same computation can be done using other instructions. When the compiler fails to do so, Julia offers the ifelse function, which sometimes can help elide branching.

Variable clock speed

A modern laptop CPU optimized for low power consumption consumes roughly 25 watts of power on a chip as small as a stamp (and thinner than a human hair). Without proper cooling, this will cause the temperature of the CPU to skyrocket and melting the plastic of the chip, destroying it. Typically, CPUs have a maximal operating temperature of about 100 degrees C. Power consumption, and therefore heat generation, depends among many factors on clock speed, higher clock speeds generate more heat.

Modern CPUs are able to adjust their clock speeds according to the CPU temperature to prevent the chip from destroying itself. Often, CPU temperature will be the limiting factor in how quick a CPU is able to run. In these situations, better physical cooling for your computer translates directly to a faster CPU. Old computers can often be revitalized simply by removing dust from the interior, and replacing the cooling fans and CPU thermal paste!

As a programmer, there is not much you can do to take CPU temperature into account, but it is good to know. In particular, variations in CPU temperature often explain observed difference in performance:

• CPUs usually work fastest at the beginning of a workload, and then drop in performance as it reaches maximal temperature
• SIMD instructions usually require more power than ordinary instructions, generating more heat, and lowering the clock frequency. This can offset some performance gains of SIMD, but SIMD will still always be more efficient when applicable

Multithreading

In the bad old days, CPU clock speed would increase every year as new processors were brought onto the market. Partially because of heat generation, this acceleration slowed down once CPUs hit the 3 GHz mark. Now we see only minor clock speed increments every processor generation. Instead of raw speed of execution, the focus has shifted on getting more computation done per clock cycle. CPU caches, CPU pipelining, branch prediction and SIMD instructions are all important progresses in this area, and have all been covered here.

Another important area where CPUs have improved is simply in numbers: Almost all CPU chips contain multiple smaller CPUs, or cores inside them. Each core has their own small CPU cache, and does computations in parallel. Furthermore, many CPUs have a feature called hyper-threading, where two threads (i.e. streams of instructions) are able to run on each core. The idea is that whenever one process is stalled (e.g. because it experiences a cache miss or a misprediction), the other process can continue on the same core. The CPU “pretends” to have twice the amount of processors. For example, I am writing this on a laptop with an Intel Core i5-8259U CPU. This CPU has 4 cores, but various operating systems like Windows or Linux would show 8 “CPUs” in the systems monitor program.

Hyperthreading only really matters when your threads are sometimes prevented from doing work. Besides CPU-internal causes like cache misses, a thread can also be paused because it is waiting for an external resource like a webserver or data from a disk. If you are writing a program where some threads spend a significant time idling, the core can be used by the other thread, and hyperthreading can show its value.

Let's see our first parallel program in action. First, we need to make sure that Julia actually was started with the correct number of threads. You can set the environment variable JULIA_NUM_THREADS before starting Julia. I have 4 cores on this CPU, both with hyperthreading so I have set the number of threads to 8:

Threads.nthreads()

8

# Spend about half the time waiting, half time computing
function half_asleep(start::Bool)
    a, b = 1, 0
    for iteration in 1:5
        start && sleep(0.06)
        for i in 1:100000000
            a, b = a + b, a
        end
        start || sleep(0.06)
    end
    return a
end

function parallel_sleep(n_jobs)
    jobs = []
    for job in 1:n_jobs
        push!(jobs, Threads.@spawn half_asleep(isodd(job)))
    end
    return sum(fetch, jobs)
end

parallel_sleep(1); # run once to compile it

for njobs in (1, 4, 8, 16)
    @time parallel_sleep(njobs);
end

  0.604390 seconds (44 allocations: 1.906 KiB)
  0.694747 seconds (292 allocations: 15.500 KiB)
  0.609797 seconds (425 allocations: 20.922 KiB)
  1.157514 seconds (705 allocations: 33.109 KiB)

You can see that with this task, my computer can run 8 jobs in parallel almost as fast as it can run 1. But 16 jobs takes much longer.

For CPU-constrained programs, the core is kept busy with only one thread, and there is not much to do as a programmer to leverage hyperthreading. Actually, for the most optimized programs, it usually leads to better performance to disable hyperthreading. Most workloads are not that optimized and can really benefit from hyperthreading, so we'll stick with 8 threads for now.

Parallelizability

Multithreading is more difficult that any of the other optimizations, and should be one of the last tools a programmer reaches for. However, it is also an impactful optimization. Compute clusters usually contain CPUs with tens of CPU cores, offering a massive potential speed boost ripe for picking.

A prerequisite for efficient use of multithreading is that your computation is able to be broken up into multiple chunks that can be worked on independently. Luckily the majority of compute-heavy tasks (at least in my field of work, bioinformatics), contain sub-problems that are embarassingly parallel. This means that there is a natural and easy way to break it into sub-problems that can be processed independently. For example, if a certain independent computation is required for 100 genes, it is natural to use one thread for each gene.

Let's have an example of a small embarrasingly parallel problem. We want to construct a Julia set. Julia sets are named after Gaston Julia, and have nothing to do with the Julia language. Julia sets are (often) fractal sets of complex numbers. By mapping the real and complex component of the set's members to the X and Y pixel value of a screen, one can generate the LSD-trippy images associated with fractals.

The Julia set I create below is defined thus: We define a function f(z) = z^2 + C, where C is some constant. We then record the number of times f can be applied to any given complex number z before abs(z) > 2. The number of iterations correspond to the brightness of one pixel in the image. We simply repeat this for a range of real and imaginary values in a grid to create an image.

First, let's see a non-parallel solution:

const SHIFT = Complex{Float32}(-0.221, -0.713)

f(z::Complex) = z^2 + SHIFT

"Set the brightness of a particular pixel represented by a complex number"
function mandel(z)
    n = 0
    while ((abs2(z) < 4) & (n < 255))
        n += 1
        z = f(z)
    end
    return n
end

"Set brightness of pixels in one column of pixels"
function fill_column!(M::Matrix, x, real)
    for (y, im) in enumerate(range(-1.0f0, 1.0f0, length=size(M, 1)))
        M[y, x] = mandel(Complex{Float32}(real, im))
    end
end

"Create a Julia fractal image"
function julia()
    M = Matrix{UInt8}(undef, 10000, 5000)
    for (x, real) in enumerate(range(-1.0f0, 1.0f0, length=size(M, 2)))
        fill_column!(M, x, real)
    end
    return M
end;

@time M = julia();

  4.924423 seconds (2 allocations: 47.684 MiB, 0.39% gc time)

That took around 5 seconds on my computer. Now for a parallel one:

function recursive_fill_columns!(M::Matrix, cols::UnitRange)
    F, L = first(cols), last(cols)
    # If only one column, fill it using fill_column!
    if F == L
        r = range(-1.0f0,1.0f0,length=size(M, 1))[F]
        fill_column!(M, F, r)
    # Else divide the range of columns in two, spawning a new task for each half
    else
        mid = div(L+F,2)
        p = Threads.@spawn recursive_fill_columns!(M, F:mid)
        recursive_fill_columns!(M, mid+1:L)
        wait(p)
    end
end

function julia()
    M = Matrix{UInt8}(undef, 10000, 5000)
    recursive_fill_columns!(M, 1:size(M, 2))
    return M
end;

@time M = julia();

  0.833607 seconds (34.32 k allocations: 51.106 MiB)

This is almost 6 times as fast! This is close to the best case scenario for 8 threads, only possible for near-perfect embarrasingly parallel tasks.

Despite the potential for great gains, in my opinion, multithreading should be one of the last resorts for performance improvements, for three reasons:

1. Implementing multithreading is harder than other optimization methods in many cases. In the example shown, it was very easy. In a complicated workflow, it can get messy quickly.
2. Multithreading can cause hard-to-diagnose and erratic bugs. These are almost always related to multiple threads reading from, and writing to the same memory. For example, if two threads both increment an integer with value N at the same time, the two threads will both read N from memory and write N+1 back to memory, where the correct result of two increments should be N+2! Infuriatingly, these bugs appear and disappear unpredictably, since they are causing by unlucky timing. These bugs of course have solutions, but it is tricky subject outside the scope of this document.
3. Finally, achieving performance by using multiple threads is really achieving performance by consuming more resources, instead of gaining something from nothing. Often, you pay for using more threads, either literally when buying cloud compute time, or when paying the bill of increased electricity consumption from multiple CPU cores, or metaphorically by laying claim to more of your users’ CPU resources they could use somewhere else. In contrast, more efficent computation costs nothing.

So far, we've covered only the most important kind of computing chip, the CPU. But there are many other kind of chips out there. The most common kind of alternative chip is the graphical processing unit or GPU.

As shown in the above example with the Julia set, the task of creating computer images are often embarassingly parallel with an extremely high degree of parallelizability. In the limit, the value of each pixel is an independent task. This calls for a chip with a high number of cores to do effectively. Because generating graphics is a fundamental part of what computers do, nearly all commercial computers contain a GPU. Often, it's a smaller chip integrated into the motherboard (integrated graphics, popular in small laptops). Other times, it's a large, bulky card.

GPUs have sacrificed many of the bells and whistles of CPUs covered in this document such as specialized instructions, SIMD and branch prediction. They also usually run at lower frequencies than CPUs. This means that their raw compute power is many times slower than a CPU. To make up for this, they have a high number of cores. For example, the high-end gaming GPU NVIDIA RTX 2080Ti has 4,352 cores. Hence, some tasks can experience 10s or even 100s of times speedup using a GPU. Most notably for scientific applications, matrix and vector operations are highly parallelizable.

Unfortunately, the laptop I'm writing this document on has only integrated graphics, and there is not yet a stable way to interface with integrated graphics using Julia, so I cannot show examples.

There are also more esoteric chips like TPUs (explicitly designed for low-precision tensor operations common in deep learning) and ASICs (an umbrella term for highly specialized chips intended for one single application). At the time of writing, these chips are uncommon, expensive, poorly supported and have limited uses, and are therefore not of any interest for non-computer science researchers.

Thanks to Chris Elrod for reviewing this for correctness and teaching me a thing or two about computers